What policy measures taken during the interwar period represent a shift from interventionism to isolationism and how did they affect America´s international stance?

After the First World War the economy of America was thriving, during the 20’s the country The United States was emerging as the industrial giant of the world, they show how powerful they could be and they had a particularly style of life. However, due to the costly experience of World War I and the Great Depression during the 30’s, America immediately went back to an isolationist foreign policy, avoiding its involvement in foreign conflicts (Until World War II).

The interwar period, From 1919-1941, the American public demanded isolationism to avoid costly wars and loss of American lives in overseas ventures. Understanding isolationism as “ the policy or doctrine of isolating one’s country from the affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, international agreements, etc., seeking to devote the entire efforts of one’s country to its own advancement and remain peace avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities.” (Dictionary.com, 2013). Nonetheless, the American neutrality announced by the president Wilson was a contradiction because they proclaimed nonintervention but they didn’t it in practice. Wilson had banned foreign loans to prevent Americans from developing economic connections that would give them a vested interest in the outcome of the struggle. But it did not include interbank credits, a serious omission (Thernstrom, 1984). Woodrow Wilson was an anglophile and was very supportive of good relations with Britain, he moved to a process of loans and investments that favored the Allies and redirected trade towards England, while being very stern against Germany due to it´s development in submarine “U-boat” technology. In contrast, the United States had an interventionism stance supported ideals such as the League of Nations, US interventionism continued in the realms of foreign trade, repayment of foreign debt and support of international peace.

Two events lead to the end of U.S. neutrality. On one hand, the sinking of the Lusitania vessel which ended up killing 128 American citizens. On the other hand, the interception of a telegram from German Foreign secretary Hans Zimmerman proposing an alliance between Germany and Mexico against the United States. Woodrow Wilson was confident that American entry into European war would help spread American democratic freedoms to the rest of the world. It certainly did not enlarge the freedoms available to the ordinary American at home. (Thernstrom, 1984).

The war had many such unanticipated effects on American life, some of them temporary, some of them far-reaching. It leads the federal government into deeper involvement in the management of the economy than ever before. Most important, it unleashed waves of hysteria and xenophobia that drowned out dissent, and contributed to the triumph of two intolerant and repressive “reforms” which are immigration restriction and national prohibition. Thernstrom, 1984). The Great Depression intensified the United States to more severe policies of isolationism through the establishment of various institutions and increased feelings of xenophobia when the United States Congress approved a series of immigration restrictions between 1917 and 1924 that reversed the nation’s historic free immigration policy. The war and the “Red Scare” because of the ‘threat’ from communism or the war spreading. Immigration law. Forms of restriction included tough literacy tests for immigrants (particularly Chinese and Japanese) but also restrictions on people coming from Eastern Europe or other Socialist countries.

The long drive for immigration restriction finally triumphed because of the anxieties and hatreds stirred up by World War I. The same can be said for another reform movement with an even longer tradition-the crusade against the Demon Rum. The Eighteen Amendment to the constitution (1919) which banned alcohol from the land. New lobbying groups appeared into he United States in relation to this prohibition: the Christian temperance Union, the Anti-Saloon league among others. The roots of the prohibitionist force came from small towns and farming areas of the Midwest, West and South and through moral campaigning and recurring to the anti-immigration spirit it moved into the urban areas of America (New York and Chicago). What made this prohibitionist movement unique was the fact that it was the ban was intended to be permanent and embedded into the Constitution, and in its way was a way of expressing the anti-immigration spirit, focusing on the “immoral” standards of Europe.( Thernstrom, 1984).

The election of Roosevelt in 1932 introduced a new strand of policies. The New Deal focused on overcoming The Depression and pushed America’s foreign policy towards isolationism and again focuses on internal domestic affairs known as “Relief, Recovery and Reform” as a political project dealing with economic, military and political issues. (Jenkins:277). The great Depression finished with the prosperity of the 20’s, the economy was changing and was necessary to enforced the country, that’s why Roosevelt really wanted interventionism and the New Deal implemented 1933 had the objective of getting the U.S. out of the Great depression. It´s measures included employment support and employment generation measures, initiatives for public work and incentives for private investment.

The great depression changes the panorama for world politics and U.S. foreign policy, the principal objective was to preventing the U.S. from becoming involved in another war. But through the “quarantine speech in 1937”, Roosevelt tried to break away from isolationism. He was talking about the need for a collective security and the U.S responsibility to prevent the spread of war.

Finally as a conclusion the history reflects that the United States during the inter war period adopted an isolationism policy because the country didn’t want to suffer the costs of the war. Also, “close their boundaries” helped the country to
Increase their power as much as possible until became as a hegemonic country in the world, also the geostrategic position of the country helped to avoid the interventionism, especially with the Great Depression in my opinion, the best solutions and policy was isolationism. However with the outbreak of the Second World War was unavoidable the interventionism and the foreign policy change extremely.

References
• Breve historia de los estados Unidos. Phillip Jenkins. Capítulo: Guerra e influencia mundial (1917-1956) pp. 257 – 314
• Dictionary. Com. 2013. Concept of isolationism. [Online]. Available at:

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/isolationism.    [Accessed: 21 Mar 2013].

• Thernstrom S. (1984), ‘A History of the American People Volume Two: Since 1865’, Harcourt Brace and Jovanich ed. Pp 540 – 562.

How did the U.S. expand from a country affected by a civil war to a “new empire” at the turn of the XXth century?

The American civil war (1861-1865) was one of the most violent times in the History of the United States when the Northern and the Southern states decided for war, each side had to mobilize its resources and its plan strategy, it affected the way of life of many people in different aspects. According to David Potter “In America the steadily rising tensions between North and South seemed increasingly likely to destroy the feeling of national unity which had appeared completely triumphant during the first two decades of the century”.

Also it is important to mention the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments because were essential to the Civil Rights Movement, the 13th abolished slavery, the 14th adopted civil right, blacks and whites have the same rights, finally the 15th amendment allowed blacks to vote. So, the three amendments added to the Constitution after the Civil War has been the most important additions to the Constitution since the original Bill of Rights (Michael Zuckert, 2013). I mention that because it reflects that the war altered the social, economic, politic, cultural spheres in the country.

Additionally there were many loss of human life, enormous material destruction in the South, secession stopped being a political option in the United States, urbanization grew at a much faster pace after the war, the U.S. had now an urban and industrial character and such urbanization allowed for a relatively quick process of postwar reconstruction.

From Early XIX century to Mid-XIX century, very little attention was put to foreign affairs as the Civil war dominated all aspects of politics in the U.S, but at the end of the civil war public interest in foreign affairs, according to Sellers and Mcmillen, focuses on four traditional concerns. a) The world was moving toward free government, b) the public felt that the United States had a special interest in the western hemisphere since the Monroe Doctrine, c) Americans had a special and highly ambivalent relationship with England and d) the desire to expand foreign trade, especially in the Far East. Those concerns show the interest and the emergence of the United States into world politics and the rapidly growth in several aspects.

Many reasons have been given for this change from the concentration from home to foreign affair. The American economy had reached maturity, the revival and restatement of the traditional idea of “manifest destiny” of expansion, the situation in great power politics as Europeans nations. (Sellers, 1981)

Having this particularly thinking, United States was looking for expansionism, and the industrial revolution arrive to the United States accelerating the economy help because now they had the abilities to establishment overseas new alliances and gain respect, also the growth of the navy and army during the Civil War made the American military much more powerful, with batallions ready to itnervene in the continent and outside of the continent.

The establishment of clear ideals and principles in its approach to other nations as “open door policy” with China, support for the Panama Canal Project via doctrines such as the Monroe Doctrine (and its influence on Latin America), economic expansionism (with its investments in foreign lands –Cuba) and its continuous belief in the Manifest Destiny helped to construct the “new empire”

In my opinion, once the civil war ended the United States were consolidated inside the country and had the ability, tools and potential to become an empire around the world, consolidated because the war not only destroy also helped to develop the country especially in the context of industrial revolution that helped to the “reconstruction” and the growth of the economy.
In addition, the amendemets of the constitution were crucial because it allowed to promote pinciples and values of freedom, spread of christian and democratic ideals around the world, it helped to expanding their beliefs. In other words, American Civil War contributed into a lot of transformation in the country because they realized was not convenient the isolationism, instead was better for them expand their power in different nations as Cuba, in Latin America, Phillipines, etc. and demostrate that they had an “open door dolicy” in terms of political, economic, religious ans social issues. Finally once again it’s been demostrated the power of the United States and that their values haven’t changed to much over time.

References

• Potter D. (1968), ‘Civil War’ in Woodward C. (1968), ‘A Comparative Approach to American History’ Voice of America forum series. Pp. 147-157
• Sellers C., May H. and Mcmillen N. (1981), ‘A synopsis of American History, Volume Two: Since the Civil War’ Fifth edition, pp 233-246
• Zucker, Michael. NATURAL RIGHTS and the POST-CIVIL WAR AMENDMENTS. [online] Available at:

thttp://www.nlnrac.org/american/civil-war-amendments   [Accessed: 22 Mar 2013].

What is the intended scope of the second amendment to the Constitution of the United States? Is it an example of an “individual rights theory” or a “collective rights theory”

The Second Amendment of the Constitution reads as follows: “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” It was adopted into the United States Constitution on December 15, 1791.
This topic is very controversial and exists different opinions about the right to bear arms; it depends who is interpreting the law. For example, on one hand, the Court concluded that the Second Amendment does establish an individual right to keep and bear arms for self-defense and hunting and recognized that the government can regulate gun rights, also the National Rifle Association insists that the Amendment guarantees the right of individuals to possess and carry a wide variety of firearms and the Amendment was only meant to guarantee to States the right to operate militias. On the other hand, the District of Columbia officials are aware of the problem of handgun violence in the United States and argued that prohibition of handgun ownership is a solution.
The history evidence that the Second Amendment has a close relation with the Declaration of Independence that say that “All men are created equal and have the right to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”. Nowadays it is legal and legitimate bear arms for the defense of people and their self-defense to preserve the individual rights because is essential the liberty as it was in 1776 when people were protecting from tyrannical British government that was the original scope of the Second Amendment.
Interpretation of this amendment varies between those who believe it protects an individual right to own guns and those who do not; here is the dilemma if the Second Amendment is an example of an individual rights theory or a collective rights theory. On one hand, in the individual rights Supreme Court highlights the right to bear arms as constitutional, so the Amendment renders prohibitory and restrictive regulation presumptively unconstitutional. On the other hand, collective right could be argued «a well regulated Militia» and the authority to regulate firearms without implicating a constitutional right.
In my opinion the right to bear arms represent a danger for public safety because it increases the figure of crime and violence. I think the amendment should be abolish since the problem is that people most of the times don’t use it responsibly because there are not the enough restrictions.
I know that the constitution is republic and is trying to protect people’s rights but now weapons are creating a mass destruction with one person capable of killing dozens of people, so we cannot think only about the wishes or “safety” of one person, instead of it its necessary to reform, control and investigate the background checks and mental health of people that are using arms. Is evident that restrictions are not going to solve all the problems but in one way it will be an improvement and shrink of the murders and violence.
Basically the main objective of the government should be the safety of all their population and finish with the contradiction about the pursue of peace and struggle with the terrorism because inside the country they are the first that are promoting war.

What were the effects of American Independence on the establishment of a form of government in the United States of America?

After all the process of mercantilism and colonialism in America in 1775 begun the Revolutionary War that lasted for seven years. In the middle of the struggle of the independence the American people was starting a political revolution where politics and government were transformed, people argued over many issues as new state constitutions, the shape of a new national government, the separation of church and state, the regulation of prices, paper money and debt relief and obtain principles of liberty and natural rights to the conditions of their own lives.
In the midst of the war crisis en 1775 the Second Continental Congress had the task of creating a government with considerable power, which led to the approval of the “Articles of the Confederation”. The Congress had the responsibility of raising an army and establishing diplomatic relations, also in the Article 9 gives to the Congress the authority to regulate foreign affairs, declare war, mediate boundary disputes, the Article 2 stipulated that each state was to retain its sovereignty, freedom and independence and all the powers that are not delegated to the Congress. The Articles limited the action of the Congress forbidding from them raising troops or levying taxes.
The experience of war was terrifying and destructive the people caught in it, thousands of people served in the state militants, the militants in each settlement helped as a convenient recruiting system and legitimated the war. D
During the first years of the war men of all ranks, from rich and middle classes as well as the poor volunteered to fight the British and war was transformed into a poor man’s fight, wealthier men hired substitutes and communities filled their quotas with strangers lured by bonuses, for the poor and jobless, military bonus payments and the promise of a form of housing became attractive, but in the long term such bonuses rarely were paid. War created problems of housing, social order, public health and of course death was an imminent reality.
The loyalist during the revolutionary war suffered great losses of life, house, property, wealth, expulsion from a familiar community and relocation in a distant land, many loyalist were daunted by the prospect of confronting British military power or doubted that independence could be won, also the principled loyalism was the idea that every person respect their government as they owe obedience, duty to obey and respect to it.
By the time of the Revolution black Americans were involved and helped create a great slave rebellion, some slaves petitioned legislatures from freedom and tried to establish a colony by their own and some of African-Americans saw in England the promise of freedom with the idea that fighting would give them freedom in exchange, blacks saw in England the promise of freedom instead of tyranny. Some slaves ran away and went to the North where slavery was almost abolished.
As I mention before, in this context Revolutionary War changed profoundly politics and government, so the ideology of revolutionary republicanism constituted a revolution in thought, it was understood as the rejection of monarchy and its hierarchical authority, also the public authority was established by people contracting together for their mutual good, A basic part of the republicanism belief was the notion of governmental power, if removed from control and oversight, threatened to expand at the expense of liberty, political discipline flows upward from the self-regulated behavior of citizens who put the public good ahead of their own interests, the principle of political equality was another essential point of republicanism.
All of these differences of ideology and self-interests appeared dramatically in the debates over the creation of a written constitution that could serve as a way of regulate governmental behavior, that’s why most of states wrote new constitutions by 1780.
American constitutionalism goes in order to the preservation of liberty as the sovereignty resides in the people and that governments must function within clear constitutional limits, with the new constitution were considerably more democratic than the colonial regimes.
Moreover, other priorities in the agenda of revolutionary politics were: the process of secularization, loyalist threat and public safety, slavery, politics and economy. The process of secularization -separating church and state- was controversial because not everybody agreed with that. For some, separating church and state meant infidelity and disorder, while others expressed that the separation implied greater freedom and liberties for the citizens’ choice of faith, Finally in 1786 the Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom was adopted, rejecting all connections between church and state and removing all religious tests for public office. Notwithstanding the establishment of religious freedom in American law religious discrimination didn’t end.
Loyalist threat and public safety raised troubling questions about freedom of speech and association for the Loyalists, security required stern measures against Loyalist counterrevolutionaries, and the Patriots were determined to punish those who had rejected the revolutionary cause. Punishing loyalists was popular and Patriots were arguing that the Loyalists had put themselves outside the protection of American law, others argued that affecting the Loyalists’ rights meant a disregard for the rights of all citizens and when the war ended most states repealed anti-Loyalist laws.
About slavery, the Revolutionary War stopped the slavery trade almost completely, but ending the slave trade had severe implications, it reduced the infusion of African Americans into the black population and there was already a cultural transformation of Africans into African-Americans and Antislavery became a significant force in national politics. In the North slavery was abolished but it didn’t happen in the South, it contribute and increased the sectional divergence between North and South.
Regarding politics and economy, the independence and Revolutionary War devastated the American economy, issues such as price and wage inflation, high taxation and growing debt were part of the new economic scenario, also people argued against governmental control of prices, disputes over paper money divided the American people as well, paper money became an issue as well as depreciation of colonial money had created an unexpected rise in prices. There were no ready solutions to the problems of debt, taxation, price control and paper money, for such issues often exceed the capacity of politics for compromise and resolution, for that continued the political tensions through the 1780’s.
To conclude, I think that the independence and revolutionary war changes dramatically the lives and expression of American mind and the founding of documents of the new form of government as the Articles of the Confederation, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights helped in this process of independence. These documents helped to distributed the power in many people and disappear the monarchic rule, also made a society and state more “democratic” but it does not mean that everybody was included, offered guarantees of individual rights in religion, speech, press, assembly and petition. The new form of government altered the relationships between state and its citizens and other countries, although is evident as politics used to be; those transformations generated disputes that are going to have consequences in the future.